Background
Cynthia Appiah, daughter of Ghanaian immigrants, is an Olympic athlete and advocate for greater representation in the sport of Bobsleigh. She was first introduced to the sport in the Summer of 2011 where she attended her first Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton (BCS) testing camp at her post-secondary institution, York University. She immediately immersed herself in this environment by attending bobsleigh school in the following years.
Prior to finding her passion in bobsledding, Cynthia was exceptional on the track and field team, specifically within shot put and hammer throwing. Upon realizing that her athletic career in this division was unrealistic and had little success, this created a new opportunity in discovering bobsleigh. It was the 2010 Winter Olympic Games in Vancouver where Cynthia observed Shelley-Ann Brown and Helen Upperton win a silver medal in the two-woman event. She admired Brown and felt she could connect with her experience of being a Black woman in a predominantly white sport.
Growing up in Toronto Community Housing allowed Cynthia to realize that there weren’t many resources available to her “so you just play with what you have”. The financial burden of bobsleigh was challenging for her, however Brown inspired Appiah to pursue and conquer – and that’s exactly what she did. Not only did Appiah bring greater representation of Black athletes, she also had a standout rookie season alongside Kallie Humphries by winning a gold and bronze medal.
Cynthia’s story was further explained through her interview with Breakfast Television. – Our Chat with Canadian Bobsledder Cynthia Appiah
Student Athlete to Olympic Athlete
There has been a long-standing history of racism that is prevalent within sports, specifically targeting Black female athletes in all divisions. Racism may be defined as a social construct relating to social, political and economic contexts. The collective structural oppression set forth by institutions negatively impacts underrepresented groups by creating a linear athletic experience among undergraduate students (Gabay, 2013). This includes cultural and racial barriers, stereotypes and discrimination, and a consistent lack of coaches of colour to act as a mentor for these athletes (Willson et al., 2021). The social and academic adjustments among varsity athletes, along with the notion that black women are regulated to the bottom of the racial and gender hierarchy, creates additional pressures and a challenging student experience (Gabay, 2013). According to the Ontario University Athletics Anti-Racism Report, 71.3% of athletes identify as white (Are we one?: The Ontario University Athletics Anti-Racism Report, 2021). The lack of representation of BIPOC athletes is a key indication of the history of racism. Although many stereotypes surround the notion that Black athletes lack intelligence and are unable to successfully lead a team, Cynthia was determined to eliminate these falsifications (Gabay, 2013). She intended to motivate and inspire future Black female athletes by becoming one of Canada’s first Black bobsleigh pilots.
“My passion and motivation going into these games is to really break down these stereotypes and break down the mould of what a typical winter athlete can look like and how successful we can be”. – Cynthia Appiah
The Black Feminist Theory proposed by Patricia Hill-Collins is a critical analogy that allows for reflection of the social condition of Black women through social justice and empowerment (Gabay, 2013). This theory also alludes to the relationship between racism, sexism and class oppression to reveal the experiences of Black women (Gabay, 2013). Using an athletic platform, one may have the opportunity to develop, redefine and explain personal stories to inform others on the importance of Black women’s culture. By providing women a voice and greater visibility, this will allow them to reclaim their power and authority. Shelly-Ann Brown’s initial presence in Cynthia’s career of bobsleigh provided her with the confidence to conquer in a predominantly white winter sport.
“It’s one of those things where subconsciously you don’t realize how much something impacts you, something that many non-racialized people take for granted”. – Cynthia Appiah
Racism has not only existed among varsity athletes of post secondary institutions, however there has been a large emphasis of white supremacy in the Olympic Games. White supremacy relates to ‘white’ being the superior race that has the ability and power to control other races who identify as non-white. Throughout the Olympic Games, white supremacy is evident through structural discrimination where BIPOC individuals are intentionally restricted of their opportunities due to their race. The institution has evidently favoured those who identify as white compared to other racial groups which is primarily based on physical characteristics such as skin colour. Along with this, Black athletes are constantly reduced to their athletic ability compared to emphasizing their intelligence. This was exemplified by John Army Howard, a sprinter from Winnipeg (Manitoba) was Canada’s first Black Olympic athlete on the 1912 team (Nzindukiyimana, 2017). His tall and lean physique was acknowledged rather than his intelligence and commitment to the sport which ultimately demonstrated to the coaches and press that he was a strong competitor (Nzindukiyimana, 2017).
Cynthia encountered a similar experience where she was told that black athletes lack intelligence. To further this point, Team USA pilot Elana Meyers Taylor wrote in 2020 of a sled manufacturer who “refuses to sell to Black pilots” and was quoted as saying “If I wanted to see a monkey drive a sled, I’d go to the zoo”. This form of racism and mistreatment of Black athletes has stemmed from the patterns of discrimination that have established their position at the bottom of the socio-economic ladder. The Canadian Immigration Act of 1911 stated that Black people, Asians and most other people of colour were unfit and unsuitable immigrants (Nzindukiyimana, 2017). Their status in Canada was formed based on two perspectives: Firstly, they were introduced as slaves by the Europeans which created a social hierarchy and low-class status (Nzindukiyimana, 2017). Second, the historical narrative of Canada’s nation-building objectives prioritizes the British and French identities (Nzindukiyimana, 2017). These perspectives were applied to all constructs of society, specifically within sports as it was a vehicle where cultural values, including organization, authority and discipline were normalized. The role of sports shaping Canadian society through a racialized lens, translated to the Olympics where Black athletes have and continue to be shortchanged of training, opportunities and treatment such as physiotherapy.
“What remains is the crucial relationships between the pseudoscience of racial difference and the pernicious social policies it both inspires and informs”. – Historian Patrick Miller (Nzindukiyimana, 2017).
Olympic Games and the Toxic Culture of Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton
The Olympics has been a long-established symbolization of white supremacy and domination of Europeans as athletes, coaches, politicians, journalists, and gatekeepers. It was an opportunity for the embodiment of white race and its history of assimilation and oppression (King, 2007). The representation of Black athletes comprised a very small percentage prior to the 1936 Olympic Games (Kjeldsen, 1984). Hitler’s presence within the Nazi Olympics challenged the Black athletes and their successful performance (Kjeldsen, 1984). The German team argued they could not be defeated by individuals such as Jesse Owen who won 4 gold medals in sprints and long jumps (Kjeldsen, 1984). The lack of acknowledgement of these Black athletes creates a division within our society, as Jesse continued to sit at the back of the bus upon his return home. The games concluded that white athletes were less animalistic, excelled within technique based sports and maintained a higher IQ score compared to Black athletes that competed within repetitious sports (King, 2007).
Whiteness was specifically prevalent within the Winter Olympics due to structural discrimination and asserting white power. Whiteness may be exemplified as normal, universal, and synonymous with the good. The structural advantage and hierarchy among those who identify as white ultimately lead to specific markings of invisible privilege. There are three possible explanations that prove the racial inequalities present within the Winter Olympics. Firstly, individuals who have competed or assisted with the internal organization have been predominantly Europeans and Americans (King, 2007). Secondly, the sporting events available to athletes stemmed from European and North America descent (King, 2007). Lastly, the majority of the Winter Olympics have been held in the Northern Hemisphere (King, 2007). These examples allow one to reflect on the white power present within the Winter Olmypics by ignoring human variation, the significance of race, and the social order (King, 2007). Black athletes were specifically excluded from participating in winter sports as the Olympics fostered an environment where Black individuals feel out of place, lack a sense of belonging, and are asked to validate / legitimize their existence (King, 2007). An Anonymous Poster on white Survival Forms stated “a world athletic competition, dominated by white people!” (King, 2007). This statement alludes to reinforcing white power and superiority over those who do not identify as white. Promoting whiteness as the core identity within the Olympic Games creates a false narrative among the countries who deem themselves to be an inclusive and diverse nation (Kalman-Lamb, 2012). Specifically, the multicultural country that Canada prides itself to be, disguises the persistence of structural inequalities and racial differences (Kalman-Lamb, 2012).
The mistreatment of Black athletes that was evident in the 1936 Olympic Games continues to prevail within Bobsleigh Canada Skeleton (BCS). After four years of dedication and training, Cynthia’s first competition in the 2018 PyeongChang Olympic Games led her to sitting on the sidelines as an alternate due to circumstances beyond her control. This was not the only isolated incident that occurred within BCS as athlete Shaquille Murray-Lawrence faced a similar experience when he was replaced by Jay Dearborn, a white athlete, who joined the team with 30 days remaining until the Olympics Games. BCS president suggests that the team selection is a “robust process” yet Black athletes continue to be pushed to the sidelines at every opportunity they have to reach success. The racial stereotypes and national identity are prevalent among other Black Olympic athletes such as Ben Johnson as he was described using animal imagery by Canadian Olympic Officials (Jackson, 1998). As well, his intelligence was constructed as being black and therefore not equal which was articulated in the newspaper as “Ben Johnson case questions validity of IQ tests” (Jackson, 1998). The reproduction of racial stereotypes contributes to the toxic culture surrounding the Olympics and the challenges this creates over one’s identity.
Misogyny and Femininity Among Black Female Athletes
The growing discord of racial misrepresentations and prejudice against Black women have created an ongoing practice of negatively targeting athletes of colour and questioning their athletic ability. This theme is most prevalent within the sports media as Black female athletes are undervalued through humour and mockery to effectively maintain white supremacy (Razack & Joseph, 2020). The online social media platforms have been designed by white heteropatriarchy to ultimately exploit Black women through disproportionate levels of discrimination, harrassment and trolling (Razack & Joseph, 2020). This relates to the concept of misogynoir which is noted as the co-constitutive, anti-Black, and misogynistic racism directed at Black women, exemplified through visual and digital culture (Bailey, 2016). This is evident through maximizing Black female athletes within the media by criticizing their bodies while minimizing the acknowledgement of their accomplishments. Specifically, Serena Williams’, one of the greatest tennis players worldwide, was considered to be reproducing stereotypes of Black women and reinforcing white power through her body, attitude and words (Razack & Joseph, 2020). The representation of immortalizing misogynoir relates to exaggerating Black women’s anger and diminishing Black women’s identities (Razack & Joseph, 2020). It is clear that the strategies set forth by white supremacists play a key role in the mistreatment of Black athletes.
The ruthless sport of bobsleigh requires strong and intense competitors – Cynthia was at the top of this list according to Morgan Alexander, high-performance manager for Bobsleigh Canada. Yet the oppressive white supremacist perspective focusing on hegemonic femininity ultimately excludes Black women from the socially privileged form of femininity (Manu, 2017). The deeply rooted history of slavery and racial stereotypes continue to proliferate throughout society, leaving a marker for continued forms of racism (Manu, 2017). Feminism has stemmed from a position of universal whiteness however fails to include the experiences and perspectives of women who identify as non-white (Manu, 2017). The Feminist Theory was largely focused on exposing acts of oppression and resistance, however was transformed into the Black Feminist Theory to provide greater inclusion for Black women (Gabay, 2013). This theory has become a powerful tool in addressing the historical silence and exploitation towards Black women in sporting literature.
Concluding Remarks
The white supremacist perspective of ostracizing Black athletes through sport has left an imprint, specifically within Canadian history. This form of racism has socially constructed our present day perspectives and attitudes towards Black individuals. Cynthia Appiah among other Black athletes have faced countless challenges to regain equal rights within their predominantly white sports. The domination of whiteness among coaches and athletes at the university level continues to prevail at the Olympic division demonstrating the need for structural change. Although there were countless occasions where Cynthia felt like quitting due to the nature of the team and structure of BCS, she took control into her own hands by immersing herself in a three week driving school held by the International Bobsleigh Fredericton in Lake Placid, New York. Monobob was an opportunity for Cynthia to challenge herself by taking on multiple roles within bobsleigh. Through her platform, she has “dispelled the unwritten rule that Black people don’t know how to drive well” as she placed eighth in the monobob division for Team Canada at the Beijing 2022 Olympics. She continues to give back to the Toronto community through various initiatives such as the Jays Care Foundation that personally helped her reach her potential in sports. She is effectively using her athletic position to encourage and inspire young Black athletes to chase their dreams even when they seem nearly impossible.
“Who knows how much stronger Team Canada could be if we were able to get the best of the best we have in this country, regardless of race”. – Cynthia Appiah
References
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Gabay, D. (2013). Race, gender and interuniversity athletics: Black female student athletes in Canadian higher education (Doctoral dissertation, University of Toronto).
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Nzindukiyimana, O. (2017). John ‘army’ howard, Canada’s first Black Olympian: A nation-building paradox. The International Journal of the History of Sport, 34(11), 1140–1160. https://doi.org/10.1080/09523367.2017.1409210
Razack, S., & Joseph, J. (2020). Misogynoir in Women’s Sport Media: Race, Nation, and diaspora in the representation of naomi osaka. Media, Culture & Society, 43(2), 291–308. https://doi.org/10.1177/0163443720960919
Willson, E., Kerr, G., Stirling, A., & Buono, S. (2021). Prevalence of maltreatment among Canadian National Team Athletes. Journal of Interpersonal Violence, 37(21-22). https://doi.org/10.1177/08862605211045096
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